The Promethean: What inspired your interest in the study of terrorism in general and lone wolf terrorism in particular?

JEFFREY D. SIMON: It began when I was conducting postdoctoral research on international conflict and political violence. The more I learned about terrorism the more I became interested in that subject. Then, while I worked at RAND in the 1980s, I discovered an incredible story about two of my former high school classmates. One became a hostage after graduation in one of the most spectacular hijackings in terrorism history (the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine hijacked four planes on September 6, 1970) while another became a terrorist and is currently serving three consecutive twenty-five-years-to-life sentences in a New York state prison. When I looked at my high school yearbook after many years, I found to my surprise that all three of us (the hostage, the terrorist, and myself) were in a group photo for the honor society.

I became interested in lone wolf terrorism in particular when I did a case study several years ago of an individual (Muharem Kurbegovic) who had terrorized Los Angeles in the 1970s. Known as the "Alphabet Bomber" he single-handedly brought the city to a standstill and caused widespread fear by his actions and threats. It was then that I realized that the lone wolf could be a powerful actor in the world of terrorism.

Jeffrey D. Simon Photo by Kamran Behnam

Promethean: In what ways is the threat posed by lone wolf terrorists different from that of well-known terrorist organizations such as al Qaeda?

SIMON: Groups such as al Qaeda have large amounts of resources, weapons, finances, and personnel to plan and implement various types of terrorist attacks. They also have a global reach, with cells and affiliates throughout the world. Lone wolves, however, have to operate by themselves. That is not necessarily a disadvantage.

Since there is no group decision-making process that might stifle creativity, the lone wolf is free to act upon any scenario they might think up. Lone wolves also have little or no constraints on their level of violence. They are not concerned with alienating supporters (as would many terrorist groups), nor are they concerned with a potential government crackdown following an attack. They are also more difficult to identify and capture since they work alone. There are usually no communications to intercept or members of a group to arrest and learn about potential plots. They can also sometimes be mentally unstable, yet still very effective, such as Theodore Kaczynski, the infamous "Unabomber."

Lone wolves have been responsible for some of the most innovative attacks in terrorism history. For example, the first vehicle bombing (1920), major midair plane bombing (1956), hijackings (1961), product tampering (1982), and anthrax letter attacks (2001) in the United States were all the work of lone wolves.

Promethean: The nation was recently stunned by mass shootings in Aurora, CO, and Sandy Hook, CT. Do these incidents fit the profile of lone wolf terrorist attacks? How are they similar/dissimilar?

SIMON: These tragic shootings are a reminder that we are living in a world where lone individuals can bring incredible pain and suffering upon a nation. A similar attack occurred in Norway in July 2012 where a lone wolf anti-Islamic extremist, Anders Breivik, massacred scores of youths at a summer camp. There was also a shooting spree by a pro-Islamic extremist, Maj. Nidal Malik Hasan at Fort Hood, Texas in November 2009 that killed thirteen soldiers and military personnel. Mass shootings are one of the tactics used by lone wolves.

Major Nidal Malik Hasan (AP Photo/Bell County   Sheriff's Department)

What separates the Colorado and Connecticut shootings from several other lone wolf incidents is the lack of a political or religious motive for the violence. That's usually the requirement for viewing a particular violent act as a terrorist incident. However, I tend to take a broader view of what constitutes lone wolf terrorism.  For me, it is the impact of the event upon society and government that counts.  If James Holmes, the Colorado shooter, or Adam Lanza, the Connecticut shooter, had claimed that their attacks were done to protest a particular government policy or action, then we would have no problem viewing it as a terrorist incident. Because there was no apparent political or religious motive, they aren't viewed by many analysts as terrorist attacks. Yet both incidents caused fear and anxiety across the country, raised questions of security in public places, and made many Americans feel vulnerable to violent attacks by lone individuals.

We obviously can't consider every act of violence as "terrorism", but in some cases, such as the shootings in Aurora and Sandy Hook demonstrate, the lines can be blurred.

Promethean: Lone wolf terrorists are notoriously difficult to apprehend. What are some of the latest strategies and tactics used by law enforcement to bring these individuals to justice?

SIMON: The use of forensic sciences has proven indispensible in the investigation of all types of crimes, including lone wolf terrorist attacks. Examination of DNA, explosives residue, and other evidence (including fingerprints) can help identify the perpetrator, as well as where the bomb-making material may have been purchased. This in turn can help uncover a paper trail the lone wolf may have left with purchases prior to the attack. 

The emerging field of biometrics--based on the principle that certain characteristics of the human body and certain behavioral patterns are unique to an individual--holds tremendous promise as a tool to identify people. Among the physiological biometrics are fingerprint, face recognition, iris recognition, retina scanning, palmprint matching, DNA analysis, and ear and tattoo recognition. Among the behavioral biometrics are voice recognition, signature recognition keystroke analysis and gait analysis. If a closed circuit television camera is able to capture the facial image of a lone wolf at the scene of an attack, that image can be compared to a database to determine identity, provided that the lone wolf's photo is already in the database.

Advances in biometrics, like face recognition, aid in identification  (Federal Bureau of Investigation Photo/Criminal Justice Information Services Division)

More important, in my view, would be to entice the lone wolf to communicate in any manner at all with the authorities, media, or anybody else. The more information that a lone wolf provides, the more likely it becomes that he or she will be identified. The Unabomber was identified and arrested after 17 years of terrorist activities, only because his brother recognized his writing style and philosophy in a manifesto that was published by newspapers and informed the authorities. The Alphabet Bomber was identified and arrested only after he unwittingly provided key information about himself in tapes that he sent to the media. 

Despite being loners, lone wolves like to "talk", whether that is via posts on the Internet or in written or verbal communications to various parties. Exploiting that tendency is a key to learning their identities and apprehending them.

Promethean: The Olympic Games have been targeted by terrorists in the past, including lone wolf terrorist Eric Rudolph, who detonated a bomb at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. As the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia approach, what major threats will law enforcement be focusing on?

SIMON: There are several potential threats that the Russian authorities will be focusing on. These include terrorists using weapons of mass destruction (chemical, biological, and nuclear), radiological weapons, which are often referred to as "dirty bombs", as well as traditional terrorist tactics such as bombings, hostage crises, stand-off attacks, and so forth.  They will also have to be concerned with the insider threat where a person who is a member of the police, army, security forces, private contracting firm, etc. turns out to be a sympathizer for a terrorist group and perpetrates an attack. Therefore, vetting everyone who will be working at the Olympics will be an important task for the Russians.

In terms of groups, one of the major concerns will be terrorist attacks by North Caucasus Islamist insurgents.  The irony, however, is that the Olympics are usually the safest place to be in terms of being protected against terrorism. When authorities can put in place a tremendous amount of security around a specific area (i.e., the Olympic venues) for a limited amount of time, such as the approximately two weeks it takes to stage the Olympics, it deters most terrorists from attempting an attack. Terrorists were able to attack during the 1972 Summer Games in Munich because it caught everybody by surprise. It was the first time there had been a terrorist incident at the Olympics. There was very little security at those games. Since then, with one exception, all subsequent Olympics have been devoid of terrorist attacks. That one exception, as you noted, occurred at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. Eric Rudolph, a lone wolf antiabortion militant, decided that the Olympics would be the perfect place to violently protest his opposition to abortion.  He set off a bomb during a rock concert in Centennial Olympic Park-a venue that didn't have as much security as the sports events. The Olympics have proven to be remarkably safe from violence.

Eric Rudolph (AP Photo/Huntsville Times, Dave Dieter)

SIMON: Many people believe that since lone wolves work by themselves, there is very little that can be done to prevent an attack. There are no members of a group to arrest and learn about a plot, no communications among members to intercept, and so forth.  Even authorities in several countries have commented after an attack that the lone wolf seemed to have "come out of nowhere."  That, however, is a mistaken view. 

There are a number of innovative and creative strategies that hold promise for preventing some lone wolf attacks.  These include improved detection devices in post offices; expansion of closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras in public settings, with improved smart technology; advances in biometrics, including the use of gait analysis to determine if a person may be carrying a bomb or other weapon, or the analysis of facial expressions to predict hostile intent; monitoring of the Internet (while not violating people's right to privacy) to identify potential lone wolves who may be visiting extremist chat rooms or posting ominous threats; and of course, reporting the presence of unattended packages at airports, bus terminals, shopping malls and other possible target spots. 

There are also several early warning signs that may point to future lone wolf activity.  Individuals who have broken away from or rejected by extremist or other fringe-type groups can be dangerous since they are sometimes viewed as too unstable or even too extreme for membership. Without the group decision-making apparatus to control their activities, they may launch their own attacks. Another early warning sign is individuals who have a troubled past, have displayed abnormal behavior or have personality issues. The problem is how to distinguish these types of individuals from those with similar patterns who do not embark upon violent activity. But several lone wolves, such as Bruce Ivins, who sent the anthrax letters and Maj. Nidal Malik Hasan, who shot soldiers and military personnel at Fort Hood, exhibited abnormal behavior that alarmed colleagues prior to their attacks.

Finally, sudden changes in behavior could be another indication that an individual is considering an act of violence. Several terrorists withdrew from family and friends once they decided, or were persuaded, to embark upon a suicide attack. Others suddenly appeared calm and relaxed after they decided they would launch an attack that would result in their death. There are also those who are normally calm and friendly who suddenly become extremely agitated and angry. This was true of Joseph Stack who flew a plane into a building containing IRS offices in Austin, Texas.

Promethean: In the wake of recent mass shootings in the United States, President Obama has made gun control a high priority, inspiring outcry from the political Right. Do you see the gun-control controversy as the type of issue that could inspire lone wolf terrorist attacks in the United States?

SIMON: That's definitely a possibility. Many law-abiding citizens view gun control as an abrogation of their Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms. They will protest potential gun control laws by peaceful means. For some right-wing, anti-government extremists, however, gun control is seen as another step in the government's eventual suspending of the Constitution and the imposition of martial law. For these types of individuals, a violent response to gun control may be seen as justified. There have been several anti-government lone wolf terrorist attacks in the past, including Timothy McVeigh (with some help from Terry Nichols) who blew up the Oklahoma City federal building in 1995. One of McVeigh's motivations was to protest the government's raid on the Branch Davidian cult's compound in Waco Texas. It would not take much today to inflame the passions of some individuals on the gun control issue and use it as justification for launching a lone wolf attack against a government target. 

Promethean: Despite having been historically subjugated, very few women are represented in the annals of lone wolf terrorism. Why is lone wolf terrorism primarily a male phenomenon? Do you expect this trend to continue?

SIMON: The lack of women in the ranks of lone wolf terrorists is one of the more perplexing aspects of this global phenomenon. There have been many female members of terrorist organizations throughout history, and in some cases women were the leaders of the groups. But most lone wolves have been male. Nobody has yet offered an adequate explanation for this occurrence.

I reviewed the sociological and psychological literature on female behavior, attitudes, and characteristics in the hopes of finding an answer. I believe I did. Lone wolf terrorism requires an individual to basically act alone, take many risks, and have no problem in perpetrating an act of violence upon an innocent victim. Studies have found, however, that women are less likely than men to take risks, women place a higher value on social interactions and belonging to a group than do men, women are less likely than men to develop antisocial personality disorders, women are less likely to kill a stranger than men, and there is a tendency for women to kill more on impulse and emotion than on premeditation. 

Colleen LaRose, a.k.a. "Jihad Jane." (AP Photo/Tom Green  County Jail)

There have been some recent cases, however, of females venturing into the world of lone wolf terrorism. 
A woman who called herself "Jihad Jane" attempted to form her own terrorist network over the Internet. An honor student in Britain became radicalized after downloading 100 video sermons by an Islamic extremist cleric and she then attempted to assassinate a  British member of Parliament. I expect there will be more women as lone wolves in the years ahead.  The main reason is the influence of the Internet. It allows people to feel connected even when they are alone. Terrorist groups' websites and extremist chat rooms can entice many people, both male and female, to commit violent acts in the name of some cause.

Promethean: How has the advent of the Internet influenced the lone wolf threat and how authorities go about combating it?

SIMON: There is no question that the Internet is a game changer in the world of lone wolf terrorism.  For the individual interested in perpetrating a terrorist attack, everything from how to build homemade bombs to maps and diagrams of potential targets are available on the Internet.  So, too, are detailed accounts of terrorist incidents around the world, which lone wolves could study in order to determine what might work for them.  In addition, the Internet provides a mechanism for lone wolves to become infatuated with extremist ideologies through the reading of websites, blogs, Facebook pages, and other tools available online.  Lone wolves could also find other like-minded individuals on the Internet and obtain help from one or two other people in perpetrating an attack. 

The Internet, however, can be a double-edged sword for lone wolves.  They become most vulnerable to discovery by law enforcement and other authorities when they surface via the Internet. One of the lessons learned regarding lone wolf terrorism is that most lone wolves love to talk through the Internet. Whether it is by announcing to the world, as "Jihad Jane" did, that she was ready, willing, and able to commit terrorist acts, or by posting manifestos outlining various extremist beliefs, as Anders Breivik did, the Internet can give us clues about the identity of the lone wolves and what they may be planning.  In addition, the chat rooms they frequent and the online searches they conduct can all be potential pitfalls for lone wolves, if their activity is uncovered by law enforcement. The authorities are well aware of the value of monitoring militant chat rooms and other online forums and websites to discover the identity of potential lone wolf terrorists.  Lone wolves can also tip their hand to the authorities by purchasing bomb-making materials and other suspicious items over the Internet.

Promethean: Lone wolf terrorists have engaged in mass shootings, bombings, hijackings, kidnappings, and biological attacks. Is there any limit to the tactics at their disposal? What are some of the future tactics and targets of lone wolf terrorists?

SIMON: There is really no limit to lone wolf tactics. They have already perpetrated virtually every type of terrorist attack that larger groups have done. One that would seem to be tailor-made for a lone wolf but has not yet been done on a large-scale is a major cyberterrorist attack such as sabotaging air traffic control systems, electric power systems, or sending computer viruses around the world that cause disruption or even collapse of international financial and banking systems. A computer-savvy lone wolf could be as dangerous as the most sophisticated terrorist group or cell in using the Internet. The lure of never having to venture out into the "real world" but instead being able to launch an attack from the privacy of their own home is something that lone wolves may find appealing.

Another lone wolf tactic in the coming years may involve bioterrorism. Bruce Ivins was able to perpetrate the first anthrax letter attack in history. Although that's not considered a major attack, since the casualty total was relatively low (five people killed), the next time a lone wolf uses bioweapons, we may not be as lucky. Potential scenarios range from a lone wolf dispersing anthrax spores from a low-flying airplane or crop-duster to releasing ricin in the heating, ventilation, air conditioning system of a building. 

The tactics of lone wolf terrorists are limitless, and so too are their targets. Lone wolves commit their violence for political, religious, criminal, or idiosyncratic reasons. Their targets can range from government, military, and business structures and personnel to civilians. The creative and innovative nature of lone wolves also makes them capable of launching "black swan" types of attacks. These are the unique, novel terrorist incidents that nobody had previously thought possible. Lone wolf terrorists have proven throughout history that they can "think outside the box." I believe it would be a mistake to underestimate what they are capable of accomplishing in the coming years.